Runes
Overview
Anglo-Saxon runes, also known as the Anglo-Frisian runes or Futhorc, are an alphabetic script used by the early Anglo-Saxons in England from around the 5th to the 11th century. These runes were adapted from the Elder Futhark, the earliest form of the runic alphabets used by Germanic tribes. The Anglo-Saxons expanded the original 24-character Elder Futhark to accommodate the sounds of Old English, resulting in a runic alphabet with up to 33 characters.
Development of the Futhorc
As the Anglo-Saxons settled in England during the 5th century, they brought with them this script, which underwent significant modifications. The need to represent the unique sounds of Old English led to the creation of additional runes, expanding the alphabet to 33 characters. This expansion was not arbitrary but rather a response to the linguistic intricacies of Old English, a language rich in diphthongs and vowel distinctions that required a more nuanced script than the Elder Futhark could provide.
The resulting Anglo-Saxon Futhorc was a flexible and dynamic writing system that reflected the complexity of the language it served. Each rune carried both a phonetic value and symbolic significance, often derived from the natural world, daily life, or mythology. For example, the rune Feoh (ᚠ) represented wealth and cattle(?), while Thorn (ᚦ) symbolized both the thorny plant and the “th” sound. This duality of meaning underscores the runes’ role in both practical communication and symbolic or magical contexts.
Linguistic Features
The Futhorc is characterized by several key features that distinguish it from the Elder Futhark and other runic alphabets. Notable among these are the introduction of new runes such as Ac (ᚪ), Æsc (ᚫ), Yr (ᚣ), and Ear (ᛠ), which corresponded to the sounds /a/, /æ/, /y/, and /ea/ respectively. The inclusion of these runes reflects the specific phonological needs of Old English, which differed from the earlier Germanic languages.
Additionally, the Futhorc retained certain runes from the Elder Futhark but modified their usage to suit the linguistic context. For instance, the rune Gyfu (ᚷ), originally representing the /g/ sound, evolved to encompass both /g/ and the palatalized /j/ sound in some contexts. Similarly, Ior (ᛡ) and Eoh (ᛇ) were introduced to represent diphthongs, a feature prominent in Old English phonology.
The runes were used not only to represent phonetic sounds but also to convey meaning in a symbolic sense. The use of runes in magical inscriptions, amulets, and other ritualistic contexts highlights their role beyond mere communication. The symbolic power attributed to runes, such as Eolhx (ᛉ) representing protection or Sigel (ᛋ) symbolizing the sun, points to a deeper cultural significance that intertwined language with belief systems.
Runes & Christianity
The use of runes was never condemned by the Church upon its arrival in England; instead, they were often adapted for Christian purposes. This integration is clearly seen in the Ruthwell Cross (pictured below), where runic inscriptions share space with Christian iconography, and in other Anglo-Saxon artifacts, such as the Franks Casket (pictured below), which combines runic script with biblical and mythological scenes. This practice aligns with the directive of Pope Gregory the Great, who, in a letter to Bishop Mellitus, advised not to destroy pagan temples but rather to repurpose them: “[Let them] be changed from the worship of devils to the service of the true God.” By incorporating elements of the old faith into the new, the Church sought to ease the transition to Christianity and make it more accessible to the Anglo-Saxon people.
As the church established itself, Latin became the language of the liturgy, scholarship, and administration. The Latin alphabet, with its ties to the Roman Church, was seen as more prestigious and suitable for Christian texts. The runic script, associated with pagan traditions, gradually lost favor and by the 11th century, the use of the Futhorc had largely ceased, with a few exceptions in marginal contexts such as magical inscriptions or traditional practices.
Runes on the Ruthwell Cross
On the Ruthwell Cross, Anglo-Saxon runes are used to convey religious messages in the form of verse excerpts from the poem, “The Dream of the Rood.” The runes contain fragments that are part of a longer narrative, focusing on the crucifixion scene and Christ’s heroic self-sacrifice. Examples of translated lines from the runes include, “Christ was on the Cross” and “With missiles wounded, they laid Him down lim-weary.” They are carved in a vertical arrangement, running down the sides of the cross’s stone shaft, and complement the carved Biblical scenes and Latin inscriptions on the broader sides.
The runes on the Ruthwell Cross represent some of the earliest examples of Old English poetry preserved in a material form, offering valuable evidence of the transition from an oral tradition to a written culture in Anglo-Saxon England. The choice to use runes, rather than Latin, suggests an effort to engage a vernacular audience, indicating that the message of the cross was meant to resonate with the local Anglo-Saxon populace familiar with the futhorc script. However, some scholars argue that the cross is too tall for the runes at the top to be read easily and propose that the runic inscriptions were added later, in the 10th century.
Image: Ruthwell Cross Runic Inscription by G.F. Browne, 1908. Public Domain.
Image: The left panel of the Franks Casket by Wilhelm Viëtor, 1901. Public Domain.
Runes on the Franks Casket
The Franks Casket is another fascinating example of Anglo-Saxon runes. This small, intricately carved box dates to the early 8th century and is made of whalebone. The casket, thought to be Northumbrian in origin, is notable for its combination of Christian, mythological, and heroic scenes depicted in both images and inscriptions, including a mix of Anglo-Saxon runes, Latin letters, and occasionally Latin written in runes.
The left panel (pictured) depicts the legendary founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus famously being suckled by the she-wolf. The mythological founding of Rome was a familiar story as it was reminiscent of Hengist and Horsa, legendary leaders of the Anglo-Saxon migrations to England.
The runes that appear on the left panel of the Franks Casket are as follows:
Runes: ᚱᚩᛗᚹᚪᛚᚢᛋᚪᚾᛞᚱᛖᚢᛗᚹᚪᛚᚢᛋᛏᚹᛟᚷᛖᚾ ᚷᛁᛒᚱᚩᚦᚫᚱ ᚪᚠᛟᛞᛞᚫᚻᛁᚫᚹᚣᛚᛁᚠᛁᚾᚱᚩᛗᚫᚳᚫᛋᛏᚱᛁ : ᚩᚦᛚᚫᚢᚾᚾᛖᚷ
Old English: Romwalus ond Reumwalus twœgen gibroþær. afœddæ hiæ wylif in Romæcæstri oþlæ unneg.
Modern English: Romulus and Remus, the two brothers. A she-wolf nurtured them in the city of Rome, far from our native land.
Related Topics
Further Research & Sources
Adams, Max. King of the North: The Life and Times of Oswald of Northumbria. London: UK,
Head of Zeus, Ltd., 2013.
Adams, Max. The Viking Wars: War and Peace in King Alfred’s Britain, 789-955. New York, NY: Pegasus Books Ltd. 2019.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Trans. by Michael Swanton. New York: Routledge, 1996.
Bede. Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Translated and edited by Judith McClure and Roger Collins. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2008.
Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Anglo-Saxon World: An Anthology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Price, Neil. Children of Ash and Elm: A History of the Vikings. New York, NY: Basic Books. 2022.
Roesdahl, Elsie. The Vikings. Third Edition. UK: Penguin Random House. 2016.
Smith, Julia M. H. Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500-1000. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2013.
Stenton, Frank. Anglo-Saxon England. Third Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2001.
Webster, Leslie. Anglo-Saxon Art. New York: Cornell Paperbacks, 2012.