Offa of Mercia

Overview

Image: Offa of Mercia from Matthew Paris’s tract on St. Alban. Public Domain.

Domestic Relations

Offa’s relations with other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were complex and varied. He engaged in both friendly and hostile relations with neighboring kingdoms, depending on the political and military situation. One of Offa’s most notable alliances was with King Beorhtric of Wessex, which was sealed by the marriage of Offa’s daughter, Eadburh, to Beorhtric in 789. However, Offa also engaged in military campaigns against Wessex and other kingdoms, and was involved in several wars and conflicts.

Offa’s military campaigns aimed to expand Mercia’s territory and influence. In 764, his name appears on a Kentish charter from Canterbury, where he re-granted land to the bishop of Rochester that had been previously granted without his permission two years earlier. The charter included the names of Mercian nobles and King Heahberht of Kent. Additionally, in 774, Offa issued two charters granting land to the archbishop of Canterbury without any mention of a Kentish king, suggesting that Offa had reduced Kent to a dependent kingdom.

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Kent rose up against Offa in 776, leading to the Battle of Otford. While the victor is not reported, historians agree it was a defeat for Offa, as Kentish charters begin to be issued without his name. By 785, Offa’s name reappeared on Kentish charters, and no Kentish king’s name appeared again, effectively ending the dynasty of the Kings of Kent.

The kingdom of Sussex had always been ruled by various kings, and during the first thirteen years of Offa’s reign, he confirmed two charters in the western and central areas of Sussex. By 771, he defeated the remaining holdouts in eastern Sussex and annexed the entire kingdom. Charters from the following year show that he had become their overlord, reducing the previous rulers of Sussex to dukes (duces). The submission of other lesser kingdoms to Offa is not well recorded, but the East Anglian royal house had already fallen before Offa came to power. In the early part of his reign, Offa issued coins minted in Ipswich, in southern East Anglia. By the 780s, however, it seems that Offa had lost control of East Anglia, as coins began to be minted under a king named Æthelberht. This loss of control did not last long, as Offa had Æthelberht beheaded in 794, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Primary Sources Relating to Offa of Mercia

– Pope Hadrian I’s Letter Regarding Offa

– Grant of Land by King Offa to Worcester

– Charlemagne’s Letter to Offa

Image: Penny of Cynethryth, wife of king Offa (1.29 g)

Another notable coin from Offa’s reign is his gold dinar. This coin is unique because it is directly copied from the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur, a contemporary of Offa. On this particular coin, the words “OFFA REX,” or King Offa in Latin, are inscribed on one side, while the other side bears the inscription “there is no God but Allah alone” in Arabic. The moneyer who copied the coin clearly did not read or understand Arabic, as the inscription is backwards.

The discovery of this coin at the Vatican has sparked an erroneous theory that suggests Offa was a Muslim king from Africa. However, there is a mountain of primary sources and evidence that prove Offa was neither from Africa nor a Muslim but was, in fact, a Christian from Anglo-Saxon England. Despite these misconceptions, the coin is a testament to the significance of the gold dinar in global commerce, as it was the prevailing currency in the Mediterranean region. Its influence played a pivotal role in inspiring the reintroduction of gold coins in northern Europe.

International Relations

Offa of Mercia & Charlemagne

Offa’s reign saw a significant boost in international relations between England and continental Europe. In 789, Offa hosted Charlemagne’s emissaries in Canterbury, marking a notable diplomatic engagement between the two powerful rulers. The kingdoms exchanged gifts and messages, demonstrating mutual respect and interest. Offa also established several trading posts and markets in the Frankish territories, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas and fostering economic and cultural ties.

However, these international relations were not always amicable. There were several conflicts and disputes, particularly between Mercia and the Franks. Around 789, Charlemagne attempted to negotiate a marriage alliance between his son, Charles, and one of Offa’s daughters. Offa countered this proposal, insisting that his son Ecgfrith should marry Charlemagne’s daughter, Bertha. Charlemagne was angered by Offa’s demand and responded by closing all Frankish ports to Anglo-Saxon traders and cutting off all correspondence with Offa.

Despite this diplomatic rift, relations between the two rulers began to improve by 796, thanks to the mediation efforts of Alcuin and Gervold of St Wandrille. Their diplomatic work paved the way for the first commercial trade agreement in English history. According to historical records, this agreement granted merchants protection coming from public authorities in both countries and ensured they had the right to appeal directly to the king in the event of trouble, establishing a precedent for international trade and diplomacy between England and the Frankish Empire.

Another major dispute between the two kings arose when Charlemagne granted asylum to Ecgbert, a rival to Offa’s puppet king, Beorhtic of Wessex. Offa and Beorhtic had driven Ecgbert out of Wessex, forcing him to seek refuge in Charlemagne’s court for about three years. In the same letter mentioned above, Charlemagne explicitly stated that the “exiles” in his land were under his protection, asserting his power over Offa and further exacerbating the tensions between the two rulers.

Offa of Mercia & the Papacy

England had not received a papal legate since Augustine’s arrival in 597. As Offa’s influence expanded, the papacy took notice and sought to strengthen their connection, though the relationship was characterized by struggles over authority and power. In the late 780s, Offa attempted to establish a separate archbishopric in the heart of Mercia at Lichfield. His motive was not necessarily piety but political strategy, as he detested Jænberht, Archbishop of Canterbury, who he saw as a leader of Kentish resistance. Additionally, Jænberht had refused to anoint Offa’s son, Ecgfrith, as king, unlike Pope Hadrian, who had anointed Charlemagne’s sons in 781. Weakening Jænberht’s power would give Offa greater control over the Anglo-Saxon church and the remaining power in Kent. This ambition caught the attention of Pope Hadrian I, who had already heard rumors that Offa sought to depose him and establish a Frankish pope.

In response to Offa’s growing power and his dislike of Jænberht, Hadrian sent a papal legation in 786 to assess the health of the English church and measure Offa’s influence. After initially meeting with Jænberht, the papal legates met with Offa and Cynewulf of Wessex and sent two legates to Northumbria. Following their assessment, they called a two councils, one in Mercia and one in Northumbria, where twenty canons were agreed upon to bring the church back in sync with Rome. The legates then sent a report to Pope Hadrian detailing their discoveries and the council’s agreements.

There is no record of any discussion about establishing Lichfield as an archbishopric. However, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that a synod was called at Chelsea in 787 by Offa, and Jænberht “gave up some portion of his bishopric and Hygeberht was elected [to the Archbishopric of Lichfield] by King Offa.” Initially, Pope Hadrian refused to recognize the new archbishopric and reaffirmed Jaenberht’s authority, as it aligned with the organization established by Pope Gregory I in the late 6th century. Eventually, Hadrian conceded to Offa’s demands, needing a strong ally to bolster the papacy’s strength, and sent the pallium to Hygeberht in 788. Moreover, Ecgfrith was annointed as the next king of Mercia by the newly ordained archbishop.

Offa of Mercia & the Vikings

The beginning of the Viking Age is typically associated with the attack on Lindisfarne Monastery in 793. However, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that England’s first encounter with ‘Northmen’ occurred during the reign of Offa. Under the year 787, it reads:

And in his [Offa] days came for the first time three ships of the Northmen from the land of robbers [Hordaland]. The reeve [Beaduheard] rode there [Isle of Portland] and wanted to compel them to go to the king’s town [Dorchester] because he did not know what they were; and they killed him. These were the first ships of the Danish men which sought of the land of the English race.

In addition to this record in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a charter from 792 shows Offa preparing Kent to defend against “seagoing pagans with roaming ships.” This charter suggests that raids had already begun on the coastal regions, indicating that Offa was aware of the growing threat posed by these invaders. His preparations in Kent reflect his strategic foresight in strengthening defenses against the looming Viking menace, marking the beginning of England’s long struggle against Viking incursions.

Death

Offa died on the 29th of July, 796, shortly after receiving a letter from Charlemagne. His son Ecgfrith succeeded him but died in December of the same year. Contemporaries such as Alcuin viewed Offa’s reign as one that led to the ruin of his kingdom rather than its strengthening. Later authors, including Asser, portrayed Offa as a king who “terrorized his neighbors.” Despite these negative assessments, Offa was undeniably the most powerful Anglo-Saxon king of the eighth century. He conquered much through battle, but the relationships he established with other kings and the papacy helped bring Anglo-Saxon England into the wider world. His reign marked a period of significant political and cultural exchange, laying the groundwork for future developments in the kingdom.