Women
in Anglo-Saxon England
Overview
Law Codes | Marriage & Motherhood | Monastic Life | Work Life | Widows |
Anglo-Saxon England, which spanned from the 5th to the 11th century, was a period marked by significant societal changes, including the roles and experiences of women. Women were essential to the functioning of the society, playing vital roles in both the private and public spheres of life. However, their contributions have often been overlooked in history, which makes it necessary to critically examine the lives and roles of women in this period.
Women had diverse roles depending on their social status, age, and marital status. Noblewomen were afforded a higher status than the commoners, and they were expected to manage the household, supervise domestic duties, and oversee the education of their children. Some women of the upper class were also expected to learn Latin and write, which was a rare skill in this period. Moreover, they played an active role in negotiating marriages and alliances, which was important for the political stability of their families.
In contrast, women from the lower classes had to work in the fields, tend to livestock, and participate in trades to support their families. However, they could also own property and engage in commerce, which offered them a level of independence and social mobility. Women in religious orders were also prominent, as they were given access to education and could become leaders in the church.
Image: Laws of Æthelberht, Rochester Cathedral Library MS A. 3. 5 (Textus Roffensis), folio 1v
Law Codes
The Anglo-Saxon Law Codes are a series of legal documents governing the lives of people in England during the Anglo-Saxon period. These codes vary in scope and detail but share a common emphasis on maintaining social order and upholding the rights of the ruling class. In terms of women’s rights, the law codes are generally restrictive and reflect the patriarchal society of the time.
One of the most prominent law codes of the period is the Laws of Æthelberht, compiled in the early seventh century. The code deals with issues such as theft, murder, and social status, and contains several provisions that specifically address the role of women. For instance, the law code specifies that the wergild, or the compensation paid for the killing of a person, varies depending on the sex and social status of the victim. Women are generally assigned a lower value than men, reflecting the lower status of women in society.
Another significant law code is the Laws of Ine, compiled in the eighth century. The code addresses a wide range of issues, including marriage, divorce, and property rights. The law code contains provisions stipulating that women can inherit property from their parents or husbands, but only if they have no living male heirs. This provision reflects the patriarchal nature of society, which places a higher value on male inheritance.
Marriage & Motherhood
Marriage and motherhood were central to the lives of Anglo-Saxon women, and they were expected to fulfill these roles in order to maintain social order and preserve the family unit. Marriage was typically arranged, and women had limited say in the choice of their partners. The primary purpose of marriage was to secure alliances between families and to ensure the continuation of the family line. As such, marriage was not solely a romantic relationship, but also a practical and strategic one.
Once married, Anglo-Saxon women were expected to manage the household and oversee domestic duties. This included cooking, cleaning, and caring for children. The education of children was also seen as a crucial responsibility of women, and mothers were expected to instill moral and religious values in their offspring. Women of noble birth were also expected to participate in the political and social life of their husbands, negotiating marriages and alliances, and attending court.
Motherhood was highly valued in Anglo-Saxon society, and women who bore many children were highly respected. The role of motherhood was seen as essential for the survival of the family and the community, and mothers were responsible for instilling cultural values and customs in their children. Childbirth was also highly dangerous during this period, and women who survived multiple childbirths were seen as strong and resilient.
While marriage and motherhood were central to the lives of Anglo-Saxon women, they also faced significant challenges and limitations. Women who failed to produce offspring could be divorced, and divorced women were often stigmatized and had limited options for survival. Additionally, women who were widowed or abandoned by their husbands faced significant economic challenges and could become vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.
Image: Ruins of Whitby Abbey. Photo by Immanuel Giel, Public Domain.
Monastic Life
The monastic life provided Anglo-Saxon women with unique opportunities for education, spiritual growth, and leadership that were otherwise unavailable in the broader society. Monasteries served as centers of learning and culture, offering women not only a place of religious devotion but also the chance to wield considerable influence. During the early Anglo-Saxon period, double monasteries—institutions housing both monks and nuns under the leadership of an abbess—became prominent. Often founded or patronized by royalty, these monasteries were led by women of noble or royal blood, allowing them to exercise authority over both male and female religious communities. This distinctive arrangement highlighted the unique role of women in the Anglo-Saxon Church, with notable abbesses like Hilda of Whitby and Æthelthryth of Ely revered for their wisdom, piety, and leadership.
Double monasteries were vibrant centers of learning, where women could study scripture, theology, and even secular subjects such as history and literature. These institutions also became hubs of manuscript production, with some Anglo-Saxon nuns excelling as skilled scribes and artists. Through their work in copying and illuminating manuscripts, these women played a vital role in preserving knowledge during a time when literacy was rare, allowing them to actively participate in the intellectual life of their era.
In addition to their religious roles, these royal abbesses wielded considerable political and social influence. They managed vast estates, advised kings, and played key roles in diplomatic and ecclesiastical affairs. However, by the late 7th century, the Church’s attitude toward this monastic structure began to shift. The arrival of Archbishop Theodore of Tarsus to the see of Canterbury marked a turning point, as he openly disapproved of double monasteries and set about reorganizing the administrative structure of the Anglo-Saxon Church.
Work Life
The work life of Anglo-Saxon women was diverse and varied, reflecting the different social classes and economic opportunities available to women during this period. While some women worked primarily in the domestic sphere, others were engaged in a wide range of economic activities, including agriculture, textile production, and commerce.
In rural settings, women were integral to agricultural production, engaging in tasks that ranged from planting and harvesting crops to tending livestock. Their involvement extended beyond mere assistance; women actively participated in managing small-scale farming operations, including the care of animals, dairy production, and the cultivation of kitchen gardens, which were essential for household sustenance.
The textile industry was another critical area of female labor, with women responsible for spinning raw wool, weaving it into cloth, and creating garments for both domestic use and commercial exchange. High-quality Anglo-Saxon textiles, such as cloaks, were highly sought after across early medieval Europe, as evidenced by Charlemagne’s letter to Offa of Mercia in the 8th century.
In urban areas, women had a wider range of economic opportunities, including working in markets, shops, and as artisans. Women who lived in towns were also involved in the production and sale of textiles, such as weaving, dyeing, and finishing cloth. Additionally, women could work as brewers, bakers, and midwives, among other professions.
Image: A woman spinning – Psalter of Eleanor of Aquitaine (ca. 1185). KB 76 F 13, folium 010v. From the collections of Koninklijke Bibliotheek. [cropped] Public Domain.
Widows
The lives of widows in Anglo-Saxon England were complex and varied, reflecting the different social classes and economic opportunities available to them. Widows faced significant challenges following the death of their husbands, including economic insecurity, social isolation, and legal constraints.
For many women, the death of their husbands represented a significant economic loss, particularly if they were not entitled to inherit property or resources. Widows who were left without resources could be forced to rely on the support of their families or the charity of the church. In some cases, widows were able to support themselves through their own labor, particularly if they were skilled in a trade or had access to land or property.
Widows also faced significant social challenges following the death of their husbands. They were often seen as vulnerable and in need of protection, particularly if they were childless or without male relatives. As such, the community was responsible for ensuring the welfare of widows, and they were often provided with material support, such as food, clothing, and shelter.
Despite these challenges, some widows were able to achieve a degree of independence and autonomy following the death of their husbands. This was particularly true for widows who inherited property or had access to resources, which allowed them to maintain their own households and support themselves and their families. In some cases, widows even played an active role in managing the affairs of their deceased husbands, particularly if they were involved in trade or commerce.
Further Research & References
Alfred the Great: Asser’s Life of King Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources. Translated by Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge. Penguin Classics. New York, NY. 1983.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, translated by J. A. Giles, is available on Project Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/657
Clayton, Mary. Anglo-Saxon Women and the Church: Sharing a Common Fate. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1992.
Fell, Christine. Women in Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1984.
The Laws of Alfred. Edited and translated by Milton Haight Turk. Boston: Boston Book Company, 1907.
Leyser, Henrietta. Medieval Women: A Social History of Women in England 450-1500. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London., 1996.
Morris, Marc. The Anglo-Saxons: A History of the Beginnings of England 400-1066. New York, NY. Pegasus Books, Ltd., 2021.
Owen-Crocker, Gale R. Dress in Anglo-Saxon England. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press. 2010.
Smith, Julia M. H. Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500-1000. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2013.
Stenton, F. M. Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1943.
Theodore of Tarsus. Penitentials. Translated by D.P. Curtin. Philadelphia, PA: Dalcassian Publishing Company. 2013.
Whitelock, Dorothy. English Historical Documents c. 500-1042. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1955.
Photos:
Sutton Hoo Shoulder Clasp:
British Museum, CC BY-SA 2.5 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons.